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Ĭlear evidence of a water-powered paper mill dates to 1282 in the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon. The identification of early hydraulic stamping mills in medieval documents from Fabriano, Italy, is also completely without substance. Burns, however, has dismissed the case for early Catalan water-powered paper mills, after re-examination of the evidence. Hill notes that paper mills appear in early Christian Catalan documentation from the 1150s, which may imply Islamic origins, but that hard evidence is lacking.

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Burns remains sceptical, given the isolated occurrence of the reference and the prevalence of manual labour in Islamic papermaking elsewhere prior to the 13th century. This is seen by Leor Halevi as evidence of Samarkand first harnessing waterpower in the production of paper, but notes that it is not known if waterpower was applied to papermaking elsewhere across the Islamic world at the time. Donald Hill has identified a possible reference to a water-powered paper mill in Samarkand, in the 11th-century work of the Persian scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni, but concludes that the passage is "too brief to enable us to say with certainty" that it refers to a water-powered paper mill. Arabic texts never use the term mill in connection with papermaking, and the most thorough account of Muslim papermaking at the time, the one by the Zirid Sultan Al-Muizz ibn Badis, describes the art purely in terms of a handcraft.

Due to their noise and smell, papermills were required by medieval law to be erected some distance from the city walls.Īn exhaustive survey of milling in Al-Andalus did not uncover water-powered paper mills, nor do the Spanish books of property distribution ( Repartimientos) after the Christian reconquest refer to any. Stromer's paper mill, the building complex at the far right bottom, in the Nuremberg Chronicle of 1493. Since Ibn Battuta does not mention the use of water-power and such a number of water-mills would be grotesquely high, the passage is generally taken to refer to human or animal force. In the Moroccan city of Fez, Ibn Battuta speaks of "400 mill stones for paper". The evidence that waterpower was applied to papermaking at this time is a matter of scholarly debate. Scholars have identified paper mills in Abbasid-era Baghdad in 794–795. The general absence of the use of water-powered paper mills in Muslim papermaking prior to the 11th century is suggested by the habit of Muslim authors at the time to call a production center not a "mill", but a "paper manufactory". However, evidence for water-powered paper mills is elusive among both prior to the 11th century. The use of human and animal powered mills was known to Muslim and Chinese papermakers. Their propensity to refer to any ancient paper manufacturing centre as a "mill", without further specifying its exact power source, has increased the difficulty of identifying the particularly efficient and historically important water-powered type. Historical investigations into the origin of the paper mill are complicated by differing definitions and loose terminology from modern authors: Many modern scholars use the term to refer indiscriminately to all kinds of mills, whether powered by humans, by animals or by water.

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